Current Philosophy

Author: L. Silas Sterling

  • How Samuel Clemens Went West and Came Back Mark Twain

    We tend to treat literary figures as finished monuments—static entities whose worldviews arrived fully formed. But literature at its best captures something far closer to the reality of human existence: a process of continuous, often erratic becoming. Mark Twain’s Roughing It (1872) is fundamentally a chronicle of such a transformation. Chronicling a six-year period from 1861 to 1867, this semi-autobiographical travelogue records not just a geographic migration across the American frontier, but the psychological and creative assembly of the persona we now know as Mark Twain.

    The impetus for young Samuel Clemens’s journey West was born of sudden, existential disruption. Prior to 1861, Clemens had achieved what he considered his ideal vocation: navigating steamboats along the Mississippi River. The outbreak of the American Civil War abruptly severed that trajectory, shutting down commercial river traffic and leaving him adrift. Fleeing a brief, two-week stint in a Confederate militia, Clemens headed west out of pure economic necessity. Accompanying his older brother Orion, who had secured an appointment as Secretary of the Nevada Territory, Sam assumed he would step into a comfortable, salaried role as Orion’s private secretary. Upon arriving in Carson City, however, the ideal gave way to reality: the federal government had allocated no budget for his salary, and official administrative work was virtually nonexistent. Stripped of his former identity and lacking financial stability, Clemens was cast into the chaotic crucible of the frontier, forced into a period of restless self-reinvention.

    The opening chapters of Roughing It capture the raw sensory weight of this initial transition. His account of the 1,700-mile, twenty-day overland stagecoach journey across the plains and Rocky Mountains records the physical tax of nineteenth-century movement—the suffocating dust, sheer exhaustion, and unvarnished human eccentricities long before the transcontinental railroad homogenized the American landscape.

    Once established in the West, Clemens’s narrative moves through a sequence of distinct environments, each serving as a temporary laboratory for his evolving outlook. In Carson City, his initial base exposes him to the absurdities of territorial politics and the intoxicating fever of land speculation. He soon pivots to timber prospecting around Lake Tahoe—a venture that ends in comedy when he accidentally sets an entire forest ablaze—before turning to the grueling quartz mining camps of Esmeralda. Driven by the silver boom, he eventually lands in Virginia City to join the staff of the Territorial Enterprise. It is here, amidst the volatility of prospectors and overnight paper millionaires, that he first adopts the pen name “Mark Twain.” From Nevada, his wanderings carry him into California, where he contrasts the cosmopolitan friction of San Francisco with the primitive pocket-mining camps of Tuolumne County, before finally expanding his horizons to the Sandwich Islands (Hawaii) as a roving newspaper correspondent.

    Throughout these episodes, Twain constructs his narrative around the motif of the inept entrepreneur. Far from framing himself as a heroic frontiersman conquering the wilderness, he continuously foregrounds his own comical incompetence as a speculator. His grand financial schemes collapse under a mix of bad luck, procrastination, and misdirected energy. By framing himself as a flawed, perpetually naive observer, Twain subtlely critiques the unexamined greed of Western boomtown culture while inviting the reader into a shared, self-deprecating human experience.

    Yet, reading Roughing It today demands that we acknowledge its darker, unhealed edges. Twain’s caricatures of Native Americans—most notably his harsh, condescending treatment of the Goshute people in Chapter 19—reflect the racial chauvinism deeply entrenched in frontier society. While some critics read these passages as a clumsy attempt to dismantle romanticized literary myths of the “noble savage,” the offensive nature of the caricature remains an undeniable flaw in the work.

    From a process perspective, however, moral consciousness is rarely static. In his later years, Twain’s ethical horizon expanded dramatically; he became one of the most vocal anti-imperialists of his era, writing scathing critiques of European colonial exploitation in the Congo, Asia, and South Africa. Yet a striking paradox remains: while he passionately defended indigenous populations abroad, he remained strangely quiet regarding the United States’ own ongoing subjugation of Native American nations. His early Western writings survive as a complex, troubling record of a moral consciousness still very much in the making.

    Ultimately, Roughing It is more than a historical artifact or a collection of tall tales. It stands as a compelling study in human adaptation—a record of how dislocation, failure, and the unpredictable flow of events forced a young river pilot to construct a voice that would eventually reframe American literature.

  • BEYOND THE ABYSS: SECULARISM, SCIENCE, AND THE TRUTH ABOUT NIHILISM

    If you mention the word nihilism at a dinner party, the room tends to shift. The term conjures images of rain-slicked streets, black turtlenecks, or cinematic villains sneering that “nothing matters.” In mainstream culture, nihilism is treated as a psychological virus—an intellectual dead end where despair triumphs and purpose goes to die.

    For anyone who has spent time wading through the philosophy of consciousness, however, nihilism isn’t a dead end. It is a horizon. Once you interrogate the nature of subjective experience, the boundaries of the self, and the mechanisms of perception, you inevitably arrive at a quiet, staggering question: If consciousness is the stage upon which reality appears, what is the script? And what happens if there isn’t one?

    To answer that question, modern philosophy has spent over a century wrestling with two powerful intellectual forces: the rise of secular existentialism and the relentless advancement of naturalistic science.

    The Popular Fallacy: What We Get Wrong About Nihilism

    Before diving into the arguments, we need to clear away the historical clutter. At its core, existential nihilism is the thesis that human life has no intrinsic meaning, purpose, or ultimate value. It claims that the universe was not created for us, is not directed toward a moral apex, and will not remember us when the sun eventually expands and consumes the Earth.

    The common error is confusing this metaphysical diagnosis with a psychological sentence.

    We tend to conflate nihilism with pessimism or cynicism. But saying “life lacks intrinsic meaning” is a statement about reality’s structure, not an instruction manual for how to feel about it. A stone does not possess intrinsic meaning either, yet we do not weep for the stone.

    The crisis of nihilism only emerges when there is a mismatch between human desire and cosmic reality: we desperately crave a grand, pre-written narrative, but the cosmos responds with silence.

    When Friedrich Nietzsche famously declared that “God is dead” in the late 19th century, he wasn’t celebrating nihilism—in fact, he wasn’t a nihilist at all, but its primary diagnostician and fiercest opponent. He was warning that Western civilization was about to lose its metaphysical anchor. Yet while Nietzsche desperately sought a way to overcome this void, 20th-century secularism and modern science made peace with it in very different ways.

    The Hidden Nihilism of Secular Existentialism

    In the wake of declining traditional belief, mid-20th-century secular existentialism—championed by thinkers like Jean-Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir—attempted to rescue human dignity from the void. They popularized the famous axiom: “existence precedes essence.” Humans first exist in an indifferent world, and only afterward define their identity and purpose through conscious choices and deliberate actions.

    For decades, existentialism was framed as the ultimate philosophy of freedom. But critics, theologians, and strict nihilists quickly noticed a fundamental flaw in the framework: secular existentialism logically collapses back into nihilism.

    If there is no objective cosmic framework, divine order, or natural law to dictate what is good or meaningful, then any purpose you choose to invent for yourself is fundamentally arbitrary.

    Saying “I create my own meaning” in a universe that doesn’t care can feel like drawing a target around an arrow after it has already hit the wall. If a person chooses to dedicate their life to art, and another chooses total apathy, secular existentialism lacks an objective anchor to declare one choice metaphysically superior to the other.

    This tension birthed a quiet anxiety. Pop culture often absorbed this confusion through misreadings of existential literature—such as Fyodor Dostoevsky’s Raskolnikov in Crime and Punishment or the sociopathic characters in Alfred Hitchcock’s film Rope, who twisted ideas of personal freedom into justifications for arrogant cruelty. In reality, these stories highlighted the danger of inventing personal rules in a moral vacuum.

    Without an external anchor, secular existentialism is often just nihilism wearing a polite mask—a brave, self-deceptive attempt to play pretend in an empty theater.

    The Implicit Nihilism of Modern Scientific Materialism

    If secular existentialism struggled to invent meaning, modern science quietly removed the raw materials needed to build it in the first place.

    While individual scientists can certainly hold personal religious or spiritual beliefs, the scientific method as an intellectual discipline is strictly physicalist, mechanistic, and reductionist. Science seeks to explain the cosmos using physical laws, chemical interactions, and mathematical probabilities.

    By design, modern science strips nature of teleology—the ancient idea that physical things exist for a specific ultimate goal or purpose.

    Astronomy reveals a universe billions of light-years across, where Earth is a microscopic speck in an indifferent cosmos. Evolutionary biology frames human beings not as the intended pinnacle of creation, but as biological organisms shaped by random mutation and natural selection for physical survival. Neuroscience increasingly describes mind and subjective experience as emergent byproducts of electrochemical activity in the brain.

    Science answers how the universe works with breathtaking accuracy, but it remains fundamentally silent on why we are here. In a purely material universe governed by entropy, human values, emotions, and moral codes do not exist as physical forces floating in space. Scientific materialism implicitly presents a reality that is objectively, thoroughly meaningless.

    James Tartaglia: Neutral Nihilism and the Rhythm of Consciousness

    So where does this leave us? We are caught between an existentialism that invents fragile, arbitrary meaning and a scientific worldview that describes a cold, mechanical cosmos.

    Enter James Tartaglia, a contemporary philosopher at Keele University whose 2016 work, Philosophy in a Meaningless Life, brought a needed recalibration to this debate.

    Where early existentialists viewed nihilism as an anxiety-inducing burden that required heroic self-creation, Tartaglia offers a cooler, more analytical, and surprisingly liberating perspective: nihilism is simply true, but it isn’t a problem.

    Tartaglia’s unique perspective is heavily shaped by his life outside of academic philosophy—he is also an accomplished jazz saxophonist who pioneered “Jazz-Philosophy Fusion”. For Tartaglia, jazz offers the perfect metaphor for human existence. In jazz, there is no rigid, divine classical score written down in advance. The players step onto the stage, accept the open space, and improvise. The absence of a grand master-score doesn’t make the music meaningless; the meaning lives entirely within the shared experience of playing the music itself.

    Bringing Consciousness Back into the Frame

    Tartaglia approaches nihilism through metaphysics and the philosophy of mind. He points out a curious historical irony: modern philosophy often ignores the question of life’s meaning as naive, while focusing obsessively on technical scientific questions about brain states and subjective experience.

    Tartaglia bridges this divide by arguing that consciousness is the realm in which meaning occurs, but reality as a whole—the “transcendent reality” outside our perceptual conditioning—has no narrative purpose.

    He argues that life is naturally meaningless, which is not a tragedy, a moral failing, or a scientific crisis, but a neutral metaphysical fact much like the fact that space is mostly a vacuum. Meaning, instead, is a contextual, human activity. Within the boundary of human consciousness, things matter deeply—a game of chess has meaning within its rules, a family meal has meaning within social life, and scientific inquiry has meaning within human curiosity. The error occurs when humans demand that Reality Itself possess an overarching story or cosmic guarantee that mirrors our internal, context-bound experiences.

    Tartaglia argues that when we realize life lacks ultimate cosmic purpose, we aren’t losing anything we ever actually possessed. We are simply shedding an illusion.

    The Rise of “Upbeat” Nihilism

    Tartaglia isn’t alone in this refreshing shift. A growing movement of modern thinkers and writers are reframing nihilism away from 19th-century despair and toward a grounded, joyful pragmatism.

    Consider Australian writer Wendy Syfret, author of The Sunny Nihilist. Syfret argues that accepting life’s ultimate meaninglessness is actually the ultimate antidote to modern burnout, hyper-individualism, and the exhausting pressure of hustle culture. If you don’t have to fulfill a grand cosmic destiny or build a world-historical legacy, you are finally free to relax, be present, and care for the people right in front of you.

    Similarly, popular digital philosophy—most notably championed by educational projects like Kurzgesagt under the label “Optimistic Nihilism”—points out that if the universe has no pre-written plan, our brief emergence as conscious beings is an extraordinary stroke of cosmic luck.

    Where old existentialists demanded that we carry the heavy weight of being architects of our own artificial destinies, modern “sunny” nihilism reminds us that consciousness itself provides all the stage needed for local, vivid, and deeply felt meaning. A cup of coffee doesn’t need a cosmic justification to taste good, nor does a melody need the universe’s permission to move us.

    The Synthesis: Living Consciously in a Blank Universe

    When we examine the mechanics of mind and subjective experience, we discover that consciousness is an extraordinary generator of value. Love, curiosity, beauty, and empathy do not need to exist as physical laws written into the cosmos; they are generated right here, within the conscious experience of living beings.

    The terror of nihilism only survives as long as we insist that our internal values must be validated by an external, cosmic guarantee. Neither the physical cosmos revealed by science nor the invented destinies of secular existentialism need to bear that burden. Once we stop demanding that the universe endorse our existence, the anxiety evaporates.

    From the perspective of nihilists like Tartaglia, the absence of a pre-written cosmic script isn’t a sentence of condemnation. It is an invitation to inhabit our conscious lives fully—improvising like jazz musicians on a blank stage, building context, connection, and understanding simply because we are here, aware, and free to play.

    Suggested Reading

    Disclosure: As an Amazon Associate, I earn from qualifying purchases at no cost to you.

    If you would like to explore these ideas further, here are a few key books referenced in this article:

    Philosophy in a Meaningless Life by James Tartaglia Tartaglia’s central work exploring how metaphysical nihilism and the philosophy of mind can coexist, offering a refreshing, neutral framework for understanding life’s meaninglessness.

    The Sunny Nihilist: How a Meaningless Life Can Make You Truly Happy by Wendy Syfret A fast, accessible read that applies “upbeat” nihilism to modern life, showing how letting go of grand cosmic expectations can alleviate burnout and hustle culture.

    Nietzsche’s Sister and the Will to Power by Carol Diethe A compelling historical account detailing how Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche seized control of her brother’s estate following his mental collapse, heavily editing and altering his unpublished notebooks to align with her own anti-Semitic and nationalist agenda.

    The Gay Science by Friedrich Nietzsche The work in which Nietzsche first proclaims that “God is dead” and begins diagnosing the impending crisis of nihilism while seeking a path toward life-affirmation. 

    Existentialism Is a Humanism by Jean-Paul Sartre The classic, readable essay where Sartre presents the case for secular existentialism and outlines his famous concept that “existence precedes essence.”

  • Objective Morality in a Material World: Thomas Nagel’s Mind and Cosmos

    When we say that harming an innocent creature is wrong, or that helping a stranger in need is good, what are we actually asserting? Are we describing an objective truth about the structure of reality—much like stating that the Earth revolves around the Sun or that water consists of hydrogen and oxygen? Or are we simply expressing an evolved biological instinct, a cultural prejudice, or a useful social convention designed to keep human tribes from tearing each other apart?

    For much of the past century, standard scientific materialism has pushed moral philosophy into a corner. According to the prevailing Neo-Darwinian worldview, human beings are physical organisms produced entirely by random genetic mutations and natural selection. In this picture, our moral convictions—our deep intuitions about justice, duty, pain, and compassion—are merely evolutionary tools. They exist because they helped our hunter-gatherer ancestors survive and pass on their genes.

    Enter Thomas Nagel.

    In his provocative and widely debated 2012 book, Mind and Cosmos: Why the Materialist Neo-Darwinian Conception of Nature Is Almost Certainly False, Nagel tackles this orthodoxy head-on. Although Nagel is a self-described secular atheist who rejects traditional religious explanations, he argues that modern reductive materialism fails to account for three fundamental features of our world: consciousness, reason, and objective value.

    1. The Challenge of Value Realism

    To understand Nagel’s argument for objective morality, we must first understand his commitment to Value Realism (often called Moral Realism).

    Moral realism is the claim that moral propositions can be objectively true or false, independently of human opinion, societal consensus, or biological programming. For a value realist like Nagel, moral judgments are not merely subjective preference statements—like declaring a preference for chocolate ice cream over vanilla. Rather, they reflect genuine facts about the world.

    When a conscious creature suffers severe physical harm, that suffering is not merely felt as unpleasant by the individual; its badness is an objective reason for anyone—regardless of who they are—to relieve or prevent it. The badness of suffering and the goodness of flourishing are real properties of experience within the cosmos.

    Nagel contends that our direct engagement with value is as immediate and real as our perception of the physical world. When you witness or cause unnecessary suffering, your recognition that “this ought not to happen” is not just an emotional reflex or a biological mechanism firing in the brain—it is a cognitive recognition of an objective moral truth.

    However, if value realism is true, it presents a devastating problem for the pure materialist worldview.

    2. The Thought Experiment: Hitting the Brakes and Agent-Neutral Reasons

    To see how Nagel demonstrates that value is objective rather than subjective, consider his famous example of driving down a road when an animal suddenly runs in front of your car.

    Imagine two distinct scenarios—two possible worlds:

    In World A, you see a stray dog run into the street. You step firmly on the brakes, bring the car to a stop, and avoid hitting the dog. The dog trots safely to the curb, entirely unharmed.

    In World B, you see the same dog, but you decide not to step on the brakes. The car strikes the dog, causing it grievous, excruciating harm and leaving it writhing on the asphalt.

    Now, ask yourself: is World A objectively better than World B? Or is World A only “better” relative to human feelings, personal preferences, or evolutionary empathy?

    A strict materialist or evolutionary subjectivist must argue that, at the fundamental level of physical reality, World A and World B contain no objective value difference. Molecules are colliding in both scenarios. Under standard physicalism, the universe itself is utterly indifferent. Any claim that World A is “good” or World B is “bad” is merely a subjective projection added by human brains.

    Nagel forcefully rejects this subjectivist conclusion. In Mind and Cosmos (and his broader ethical writings), Nagel points out that the physical fact—that stepping on the brake pedal engages the hydraulic calipers and stops the vehicle—is distinct from the underlying moral truth.

    The fact that you will run over a dog if you don’t step on the brakes creates an intrinsic reason to step on the brakes. The general moral truth licensing that inference—namely, that avoiding grievous harm to a sentient creature counts in favor of taking action—is not made true by physics, chemistry, or evolutionary programming. It is a truth in its own right.

    Philosophers call this agent-neutral value. The harm suffered by the dog is not merely a problem for the dog, nor is it merely an uncomfortable thought for the driver. The suffering itself is intrinsically, impersonally bad. When viewed objectively—from what Nagel famously calls “the view from nowhere”—a world in which harm is avoided (World A) is genuinely, objectively better than a world in which harm occurs (World B). Pain generates a real reason for action that applies to any rational agent in a position to prevent it.

    3. The Evolutionary Threat: The Debunking Argument

    If physical materialism and standard evolutionary theory are the whole story of existence, how did we come to possess these moral judgments in the first place?

    The standard evolutionary account suggests that our moral instincts are biological adaptations. We feel empathy because cooperative hominids out-reproduced solitary ones. We protect offspring and care for companions because genetic lineages that didn’t do so died out in the struggle for survival.

    Nagel points out the fatal flaw in relying solely on this account to explain our moral faculties: If our moral intuitions are purely the product of natural selection aiming at survival and reproductive fitness, we have no reason to believe those intuitions track objective truth.

    Natural selection is a mindless, unguided process driven solely by differential reproduction, not a search for metaphysical truth. If holding a false belief happened to enhance a species’ survival chances—for example, if believing an invisible barrier surrounded their territory kept them safe from predators—evolutionary pressures would favor that false belief every single time.

    Therefore, if our moral faculty was forged exclusively by evolutionary pressures, the fact that our moral beliefs happen to align with “objective moral truth” would be an astonishing, unaccountable coincidence. As philosopher Sharon Street famously argued in her “Darwinian Dilemma,” evolutionary forces would have pushed our evaluative attitudes in directions dictated by fitness, not truth.

    Nagel summarizes the dilemma starkly: if you reduce morality to evolutionary biology, you inevitably undermine its objectivity. You are left with two uncomfortable choices:

    1. Moral Subjectivism / Nihilism: Accept that objective morality is an illusion, and that our feelings about justice, harm, and preventing the suffering of a dog or child are merely biological tricks played on us by our genes.
    2. Re-evaluating Materialism: Recognize that if objective values and true reasons are real, then nature must be capable of generating entities that can recognize true values—meaning the universe itself cannot be purely material.

    Nagel firmly chooses the second path. He refuses to sacrifice the reality of moral truth just to preserve a narrow materialist orthodoxy.

    4. Beyond Materialism: Mind and Value as Fundamental

    Nagel’s central thesis in Mind and Cosmos is that a complete, unified understanding of nature must account for consciousness, cognition, and value as fundamental aspects of the cosmic order—not as accidental side-effects or magical emergent properties of physical chemistry.

    If mind, reason, and objective value exist, then the universe must be the kind of place that naturally gives rise to them.

    Nagel rejects the traditional theological solution—that a divine creator designed the universe with moral purpose—because he remains a committed secular philosopher. But he equally rejects the materialist view that life and mind are cosmic accidents. Instead, he proposes a form of natural teleology.

    Natural teleology is the idea that the laws of nature are not merely mechanical (governed solely by physics pushing matter from behind), but also directional—inclined toward the realization of consciousness, mind, and value over time.

    In this expanded picture of nature:

    • Value is Intrinsic to Experience: The value or disvalue of subjective experiences—such as the horror of pain or the flourishing of life—is built into the very structure of conscious experience.
    • Reason Tracks Reality: Human beings are not just biological survival machines executing evolutionary software; we are natural systems equipped with rational faculties capable of uncovering real truths about logic, mathematics, and ethics.
    • The Cosmos Is Intelligible: Mind is not an alien intruder in a world of dead matter. Rather, the universe is inherently structured to produce conscious beings who can understand it and evaluate it.

    5. Why Nagel’s View Matters Today

    Nagel’s argument in Mind and Cosmos ignited fierce debate among scientists, cognitive theorists, and philosophers. Much of the backlash stemmed from the fact that Nagel—a highly respected secular philosopher—was daring to question materialist Neo-Darwinism from within academia.

    Yet, his contribution remains vital for contemporary ethical and cultural discussions:

    1. Restoring Dignity to Moral Reasoning: Nagel validates our common-sense conviction that when we seek to avoid harm, stand up against cruelty, or defend human rights, we are responding to facts about reality, not merely describing our social conditioning or biological impulses.
    2. Refusing False Choices: Nagel demonstrates that we do not have to choose between a rigid, supernatural theology on one side and a reductive, cynical materialism on the other. There is room for a secular worldview that takes consciousness and objective value seriously.
    3. Broadening the Scope of Science: Nagel challenges us to expand our understanding of nature. A scientific framework that can explain physical forces but must dismiss consciousness and moral truth as “illusions” is not a complete theory of everything—it is an incomplete theory that leaves out the observer.

    Conclusion: Living in a Universe with Value

    If Thomas Nagel is correct, objective morality is neither a divine decree written in the heavens nor an evolutionary trick coded into our DNA to keep the tribe together. It is a constituent feature of the cosmos itself—unfolded through conscious, rational beings who are capable of recognizing real reasons for action.

    When we act morally—when we step on the brakes to spare a sentient creature, defend human dignity, or alleviate pain in an innocent child—we are not rebelling against a cold, indifferent universe. We are participating in its highest, most coherent realization.

    Suggested Reading

    If you would like to explore these ideas further, here are a few recommended texts:

    1. Thomas Nagel – Mind and Cosmos: Why the Materialist Neo-Darwinian Conception of Nature Is Almost Certainly False (2012)Nagel’s concise, highly readable, and controversial critique of reductive materialism.
    2. Thomas Nagel – The View from Nowhere (1986)A deeper dive into Nagel’s earlier work on objectivity, subjectivity, consciousness, and the agent-neutral badness of pain.
    3. Sharon Street – “A Darwinian Dilemma for Realist Theories of Value” (2006)The seminal paper outlining the evolutionary debunking challenge to moral realism. Street argues that because natural selection shapes our moral attitudes toward survival rather than objective truth, moral realists face a dilemma: either our evaluative beliefs are hopelessly off-track or their alignment with truth is an impossible coincidence. While Street uses this dilemma to abandon moral realism in favor of constructivism/subjectivism, Nagel starts with the opposite premise: because moral realism is an undeniable datum of experience, Street’s dilemma proves that physical materialism—not moral realism—is what must be rejected.
    4. Derek Parfit – On What Matters (Volumes 1 & 2)A monumental defense of moral realism and objective reasons by one of the 21st century’s premier ethicists.